Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Will boys’ mental health fare worse under a hotter climate in Australia?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Population and Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A hotter climate is increasingly found to have negative effects on human health, yet the possible impact on children’s mental health is less understood. Our study explored this potential relationship using a national survey of children aged 6–11 across Australia, during the period 2008–2014 (n = 14,096). It was hypothesised that the negative effects of hotter weather on children’s mental health can occur both directly (e.g. through heat impacts influencing hyperactivity and restlessness) and indirectly (e.g. through reduced participation in organised physical activities). Mediation analysis controlled for a range of other locational, gender, socio-economic and demographic influences. Results indicate that an increase in annual average daily maximum temperature worsened childhood mental health due to a direct and indirect effect through reduced participation in organised physical activities, as measured by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) total score, but the result is only significant for boys (albeit the magnitude of the effect was small). More specifically, temperature differences are driven through the SDQ mental health sub-scales of hyperactivity and peer problems. Gender disparities are also observed in terms of other environmental or locational influences having a significant impact on boys’ mental health, with no significant impact found for girls. Girls’ mental health is more likely influenced by family and individual socio-economic characteristics. There is also evidence of an increased impact of higher temperature on children’s mental health in poorer households, suggesting the need for more targeted children’s mental health policies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aber, J., Jones, S., & Cohen, J. (2000). The impact of poverty on the mental health and development of very young children. In C. H. Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health (pp. 113–128). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcock, I., White, M., Wheeler, B., Fleming, L., & Depledge, M. (2014). Longitudinal effects on mental health of moving to greener and less green urban areas. Environmental Science and Technology, 48, 1247–1255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amoly, E., Dadvand, P., Forns, J., López-Vicente, M., Basagaña, X., Julvez, J., et al. (2014). Green and blue spaces and behavioural development in Barcelona schoolchildren: The BREATHE project. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122, 1351–1358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aneshensel, C., & Sucoff, C. (1996). The neighborhood context of adolescent mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 293–310.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angold, A., & Costello, E. (1995). Developmental epidemiology. Epidemiologic Reviews, 17(1), 74–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Australian Institute of Family Studies (2015). The longitudinal study of Australian children: an Australian government initiative (LSAC) data user guide. November, http://data.growingupinaustralia.gov.au/data/docs/userguide/index.html

  • Balbus, J., & Malina, C. (2009). Identifying vulnerable subpopulations for climate change health effects in the United States. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 51, 33–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baranowski, T., Thompson, W., DuRant, R., Baranoswki, J., & Puhl, J. (1993). Observations on physical activity in physical locations: age, gender, ethnicity and month effects. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 64, 127–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beiser, M., Hou, F., Hyman, I., & Tousignant, M. (2002). Poverty, family process, and the mental health of immigrant children in Canada. American Journal of Public Health, 92, 220–227.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berman, M., Kross, E., Krpan, K., Askren, M., Burson, A., Deldin, P., et al. (2012). Interacting with nature improves cognition and affect for individuals with depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140, 300–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, H., Bowen, K., & Kjellstrom, T. (2010). Climate change and mental health: a causal pathways framework. International Journal of Public Health, 55, 123–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bi, P., Williams, S., Loughnan, M., Lloyd, G., Hansen, A., Kjellstrom, T., et al. (2011). The effects of extreme heat on human mortality and morbidity in Australia: implications for public health. Asia-Pacific Journal of Public Health, 23, 27–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D., Barton, J., & Gladwell, V. (2013). Viewing nature scenes positively affects recovery of autonomic function following acute-mental stress. Environmental Science and Technology, 47, 5562–5569.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carleton, T. (2017). Crop-damaging temperatures increase suicide rates in India. PNAS, 114(33), 8746–8751.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, D., Whitfield, C., Felitti, V., Dube, S., Edwards, V., & Anda, R. (2004). Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 217–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CSIRO and BOM (2015). Commonwealth scientific and industrial research organisation and bureau of meteorology. Climate change in Australia: Projections for Australia’s NRM regions. Technical report, CSIRO and BOM.

  • Cutter, S. (1995). The forgotten casualties: Women, children, and environmental change. Global Environmental Change, 5, 181–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cutter, S. (2017). The forgotten casualties redux: Women, children, and disaster risk. Global Environmental Change, 42, 117–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dinh, H., Cooklin, A., Leach, L., Westrupp, E., Nicholson, J., & Strazdins, L. (2017). Parents' transitions into and out of work–family conflict and children’s mental health: Longitudinal influence via family functioning. Social Science & Medicine, 194, 42–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Due, P., Lynch, J., Holstein, B., & Modvig, J. (2003). Socioeconomic health inequalities among a nationally representative sample of Danish adolescents: The role of different types of social relations. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 692–6983.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, B., Gray, M., & Hunter, B. (2015). The impact of drought on mental health in rural and regional Australia. Social Indicators Research, 121, 177–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Flies, E., Skelly, C., Negi, S., Prabhakaran, P., Liu, Q., Liu, K., et al. (2017). Biodiverse green spaces: A prescription for global urban health. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 15, 510–516.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Francis, J., Wood, L., Knuiman, M., & Giles-Corti, B. (2012). Quality or quantity? Exploring the relationship between public open space attributes and mental health in Perth, Western Australia. Social Science & Medicine, 74, 1570–1577.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frumkin, H., Bratman, G., Breslow, S., Cochran, B., Kahn, P., Lawler, J., et al. (2017). Nature contact and human health: a research agenda. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125, 1–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gloth 3rd, F., Alam, W., & Hollis, B. (1999). Vitamin D vs broad spectrum phototherapy in the treatment of seasonal affective disorder. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 3, 5–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, H., McGinnity, A., Meltzer, H., Ford, T., & Goodman, R. (2005). Mental health of children and young people. London: Palgrave MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, A., Bi, P., Nitschke, M., Ryan, P., Pisaniello, D., & Tucker, G. (2008). The effect of heat waves on mental health in a temperate Australian city. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116, 1369–1375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., de Vries, S., & Frumkin, H. (2014). Nature and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 207–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzele, A., & Vries, S. (2012). Linking green space to health: A comparative study of two urban neighbourhoods in Ghent, Belgium. Population and Environment, 34, 171–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, R., & Tingley, D. (2011). Causal mediation analysis. Stata Journal, 114, 605–619.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hume, C., Salmon, J., & Ball, K. (2005). Children's perceptions of their home and neighborhood environments, and their association with objectively measured physical activity: A qualitative and quantitative study. Health Education Research, 20, 113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imai, K., Keele, L., & Tingley, D. (2010). A general approach to causal mediation analysis. Psychological Methods, 15, 309–334.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jorm, A. F., Bourchier, S. J., Cvetkovski, S., & Stewart, G. (2012). Mental health of indigenous Australians: A review of findings from community surveys. Med J Aust, 196, 118–121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Juzeniene, A., & Moan, J. (2012). Beneficial effects of UV radiation other than via vitamin D production. Dermatoendocrinol, 4, 109–117.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katsouyanni, K., Trichopoulos, D., Zavitsanos, X., & Touloumi, G. (1988). The 1987 Athens heatwave. The Lancet, 2, 573.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, P., & Adger, W. (2000). Theory and practice in assessing vulnerability to climate change and facilitating adaptation. Climatic Change, 47, 325–352.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kieling, C., Baker-Henningham, H., Belfer, M., Conti, G., Ertem, I., Omigbodun, O., et al. (2011). Child and adolescent mental health worldwide: Evidence for action. The Lancet, 378, 1515–1525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kilbourne, E. (1997). Heat waves and hot environments. In E.K. Noji (Ed.), The public health consequences of disasters, (pp. 245–269). Oxford Uni. Press.

  • Kovess-Masféty, V., Alonso, J., de Graaf, R., & Demyttenaere, K. (2005). European approach to rural-urban differences in mental health: The ESEMeD 2000 comparative study. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50, 926–936.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, Y., Chatterton, M., Magnus, A., Mohebbi, M., Le, L., & Mihalopoulos, C. (2017). Cost of high prevalence mental disorders: Findings from the 2007 Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 51, 1198–1211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leve, L., Kim, H., & Pears, K. (2005). Childhood temperament and family environment as predictors of internalizing and externalizing trajectories from age 5 to age 17. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 3, 505–520.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, A. (2006). Global burden of disease and risk factors. Oxford University Press, New York, NY and Washington, DC: World Bank.

  • Maas, J., Verheij, R., Groenewegen, P., de Vries, S., & Spreeuwenberg, P. (2006). Green space, urbanity, and health: How strong is the relation? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 60, 587–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacKerron, G., & Mourato, S. (2013). Happiness is greater in natural environments. Global Environmental Change, 23, 992–1000.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, J., & Shanahan, M. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and children’s mental health. American Sociological Review, 58(3), 351–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMichael, A., Woodruff, R., & Hales, S. (2006). Climate change and human health: Present and future risks. The Lancet, 367(9513), 859–869.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNutt, M. (2013). Climate change impacts. Science, 341(6145), 435.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nauges, C., & Wheeler, S. (2017). The complex relationship between households’ climate change concerns and their water and energy mitigation behaviour. Ecological Economics, 141, 87–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nitschke, M., Tucker, G., Hansen, A., Williams, S., Zhang, Y., & Bi, P. (2011). Impact of two recent extreme heat episodes on morbidity and mortality in Adelaide, South Australia: A case-series analysis. Environmental Health, 10, 42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norton, A., & Monahan, K. (2015). LSAC technical paper no. 15: wave 6 weighting and non-response. Canberra: Australian Government Department of Social Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nutsford, D., Pearson, A., & Kingham, S. (2013). An ecological study investigating the association between access to urban green space and mental health. Public Health, 127, 1005–1011.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Padhy, S., Sarkar, S., Panigrahi, M., & Paul, S. (2015). Mental health effects of climate change. Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 19, 3–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paluska, S., & Schwenk, T. (2000). Physical activity and mental health. Sports Medicine, 29, 167–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palutikof, J. (2010). The view from the front line: Adapting Australia to climate change. Global Environmental Change, 20, 218–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Patz, J., Campbell-Lendrum, D., Holloway, T., & Foley, J. (2005). Impact of regional climate change on human health. Nature, 438, 310–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paykel, E., Abbott, R., Jenkins, R., Brugha, T., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Urban–rural mental health differences in Great Britain: Findings from the National Morbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 30, 269–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piguet, E., Kaenzig, R., & Guélat, J. (2018). The uneven geography of research on “environmental migration”. Population and Environment, 39, 357–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M., Macera, C., & Blanton, C. (1999). Levels of physical activity and inactivity in children and adults in the United States: Current evidence and research issues. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31, 526–533.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reiss, F. (2013). Socioeconomic inequalities and mental health problems in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Social Science & Medicine, 90, 24–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riddoch, C., Bo Andersen, L., Wedderkopp, N., Harro, M., Klasson-Heggebø, L., Sardinha, L., et al. (2004). Physical activity levels and patterns of 9- and 15-yr-old European children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36, 86–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenfield, S., & Mouzon, D. (2013). Gender and mental health. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 277–296). Netherlands: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schore, A. (2017). 67. All our sons: The developmental neurobiology and neuroendocrinology of boys at risk. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38, 15–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Slovic, P. (2000). The perception of risk. London: Earthscan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strazdins, L., Shipley, M., Clements, M., Obrien, L., & Broom, D. (2010). Job quality and inequality: Parents’ jobs and children’s emotional and behavioural difficulties. Social Science & Medicine, 70, 2052–2060.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strazdins, L. O’Brien, L., Lucas, N. & Rodgers, B. (2013). Combining work and family: Rewards or risks for children's mental health? Social Science & Medicine, 87, 99–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tandon, P., Zhou, C., & Christakis, D. (2012). Frequency of parent-supervised outdoor play of US preschool-aged children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 166, 707–712.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, A., Kuo, F., & Sullivan, W. (2002). Views of nature and self-discipline: Evidence from inner city children. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 22(1–2), 49–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Telford, R. M., Telford, R. D., Olive, L., Cochraine, T., & Davey, R. (2016). Why are girls less physically active than boys? Findings from the LOOK longitudinal study. PLoS One, 11, 15–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Terman, M., Terman, J. S., & Ross, D. (1998). A controlled trial of timed bright light and negative air ionization for treatment of winter depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 875–882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend, M., Mahoney, M., Jones, J.-A., Ball, K., Salmon, J., & Finch, C. (2003). Too hot to trot? Exploring potential links between climate change, physical activity and health. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 6, 260–265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Twenge, J., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort differences on the children’s depression inventory: a meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578–588.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, S., & Zuo, A. (2017). The impact of drought and water scarcity on irrigator farm exit intentions in the Murray–Darling basin. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 61, 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, S., Zuo, A., & Loch, A. (2018). Water torture: Unravelling the psychological distress of irrigators in Australia. Journal of Rural Studies, 62, 183–194.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, M., Alcock, I., Wheeler, B., & Depledge, M. (2013). Coastal proximity, health and well-being: Results from a longitudinal panel survey. Health & Place, 23, 97–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, S., Nitschke, M., Weinstein, P., Pisaniello, D., Parton, K., & Bi, P. (2012). The impact of summer temperatures and heatwaves on mortality and morbidity in Perth, Australia 1994-2008. Environment International, 40, 33–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2002). Gender and mental health. Available: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/68884/1/a85573.pdf. Accessed June 2002.

  • Xue, Y., Leventhal, T., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Earls, F. (2005). Neighborhood residence and mental health problems of 5- to 11-year-olds. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 554–563.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are very grateful to comments received from Elizabeth Fussell, Phil Weinstein and three anonymous reviewers, whose ideas and feedback much improved this manuscript. Funding for this project was provided by a University of Adelaide Interdisciplinary Research Funding Scheme and Australian Research Council FT140100773. This article uses unit record data from Growing Up in Australia, the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children (LSAC). LSAC is conducted in partnership between the Department of Social Services (DSS), the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) and the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). The findings and views reported in this paper are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the DSS, the AIFS or the ABS.

Funding

This work was partly funded by Australian Research Council (FT140100773). The usual disclaimer applies.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Global Food and Resources, Faculty of Professions, University of Adelaide, 10 Pulteney Street, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia

    Ying Xu, Sarah Ann Wheeler & Alec Zuo

Authors
  1. Ying Xu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sarah Ann Wheeler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Alec Zuo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ying Xu.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Appendix

Appendix

Table 7 Attrition statistics and t tests of attrition by gender
Full size table

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Xu, Y., Wheeler, S.A. & Zuo, A. Will boys’ mental health fare worse under a hotter climate in Australia?. Popul Environ 40, 158–181 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-018-0306-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-018-0306-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation